The dominant structure of knowledge in the twentieth century was division into domains of disciplinary specialization. In the latter half of the century this system was challenged by an increasing number of interdisciplinary activities. This chapter examines typologies of interdisciplinary activities, identifying patterns of consensus and fault lines of debate from the first major classification scheme in 1970 and continues to recent taxonomies that recognize new developments. The chapter compares similarities and differences in a framework of multidisciplinary juxtaposition and alignment of disciplines, interdisciplinary integration and collaboration, and transdisciplinary synthesis and trans-sector problem solving. It further distinguishes major variants of methodological versus theoretical interdisciplinarity, bridge building versus restructuring, and instrumental versus critical interdisciplinarity. Typologies are neither neutral nor static. They reflect choices of representation in a semantic web of differing purposes, contexts, organizational structures, and epistemological frameworks. They reassert, extend, interrogate, and reformulate existing classifications to address both ongoing and unmet needs.

The journal Futures published a special issue 'Advances in transdisciplinarity 2004-2014' in 2015, volume 65, pages 1-216 . It was edited by Lawrence, R.J.

The journal Nature published a collection of articles on Interdisciplinarity on 16 September 2015. Nature’s special issue probes how scientists and social scientists are coming together to solve the grand challenges of energy, food, water, climate and health. This special scrutinizes the data on interdisciplinary work and looks at its history, meaning and funding. A case study and a reappraisal of the Victorian explorer Richard Francis Burton explore the rewards of breaking down boundaries. Meanwhile, a sustainability institute shares its principles for researchers who work across disciplines.

International field trips provide opportunities for interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary learning experiences which can be transformative. Whilst these projects are becoming popular with increasing focus on internationalisation of the curriculum, tackling global challenges and encouraging student mobility, there is scant literature on the critical pedagogical approaches which support the design and delivery of transformative learning experiences. The study described herewith examined the transformative pedagogies used to facilitate learning during interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary field trips and placements. Objectives of the study included (1) evaluating the impact of two projects related to student interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary field trips; (2) identifying best practice of teaching and learning design; and (3) providing recommendations for future higher education (HE) arrangements. The findings show that transformative learning experiences must be carefully integrated into the design of international field trips, setting up pivotal learning moments and suitable challenges which enhance reflexivity, shared learning and problem-solving.

This article explores a transdisciplinary, collaborative, curriculum design project to promote institutional belonging as a driver of student engagement, and to equip graduates with the fluency to work across disciplines. It demonstrates a facilitated method, to construct learning outcomes that break with typical subject-based knowledge and associated hierarchies of expertise. After considering a small number of precedents, the authors use curriculum models to inform a design specification. Following the formation of a multidisciplinary design team, a development tool (Lego® Serious Play®) was selected for a design workshop. A qualitative analysis of the workshop transcript was then used to inform the learning outcomes for a common module to be taken by all first-year undergraduates. Finally, the article considers how the process provided a framework for collaborative design that has been implemented in further projects, and led to the creation of a growing community of practice. The project provides insights for others embarking on collaborative curriculum design initiatives, especially where transdisciplinary learning is an objective.

The need for a more sustainable world was unanimously acknowledged by United Nations members in September 2015, when 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were set, positioning education at the heart of the strategy to promote sustainable development. This paper aims to demonstrate the importance of adopting an interdisciplinary approach to education for sustainable development, and to illustrate how to advance it, acknowledging different perspectives of sustainability and corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the context of diversity. It examines the broad agenda of the SDGs, which requires the participation of multiple disciplines and sectors to be delivered. Considering the Principles for Responsible Management Education (PRME), the paper reviews the literature regarding interdisciplinarity and its application in education for sustainable development, including practices and barriers to enhance it. A case study is provided to illustrate how to advance interdisciplinary education for sustainable development amongst postgraduate MBA students from different backgrounds, in a course where sustainable development concepts are already embedded across disciplines. The case illustrates the application of the Six Principles of PRME and explains how a sustainability and CSR module can encourage students to combine knowledge from all disciplines in order to advance their understanding and action on sustainable development issues. •Implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goals requires interdisciplinarity.•Barriers to enhance interdisciplinarity include limited knowledge base and time.•Sustainability education necessitates tailoring teaching to students' backgrounds.•Management education benefits from embedding sustainability across disciplines.•PRME has contributed to advance understanding of sustainable development issues.

Partnership in higher education has gained prominence over recent decades, but recent studies have identified a lack of research exploring how partnership practices unfold in specific disciplinary contexts. This article explores how a transdisciplinary approach can be used to better understand and facilitate student-staff partnerships where staff and students have diverse disciplinary backgrounds and knowledge. We present a case study of the Bachelor of Creative Intelligence and Innovation at the University of Technology Sydney, focusing on the adaptation of our curriculum co-creation processes by drawing on multiple knowledge types through a reflexive process of mutual learning. We conclude that explicit consideration of these principles, which are common to both transdisciplinary and partnership frameworks, have the potential to enhance consideration of diverse perspectives and the roles played by worldviews, norms and values when building student-staff partnerships around curriculum co-creation.

Purpose This paper aims to explain the relevance of science-society interfaces and their potential for higher education institutions to engage stakeholders in supporting sustainable change in cities, via the transdisciplinary learning and teaching approach of the Regional Centre of Expertise on Education for Sustainable Development Vienna. Design/methodology/approach This case study stresses new forms of transdisciplinary learning and teaching as essential drivers of a sustainable urban development. The inter- and transdisciplinary teaching course “Sustainability Challenge”, which has been offered since 2010 as a collaborative project by the four largest universities of Vienna, highlights the value of experienced-based learning approaches and the method of service learning. Special attention is devoted to the opportunities and challenges of the setting provided by the applied science-society interface and the particular method of service learning with its concrete benefits for the city of Vienna. Findings In analyzing the conceptual framework of the teaching course as well as conducted service learning projects, the authors prove potential benefits of transdisciplinary learning and teaching for real answers to urban sustainability challenges. Portraits of the most successful service learning projects are presented, with partners such as the City of Vienna, an organization and one enterprise. Lessons learned from the case study and key elements of the institutionalized umbrella function of science-society interfaces that provide prerequisites for applying transdisciplinary learning and teaching are shown. Originality/value Finally, main requirements, challenges and necessary institutional settings for transdisciplinary learning and teaching are summarized.

The Commission's major findings are presented in four subsections. The first describes a century of educational reforms, grouped into three generations. The next two subsections present our diagnosis based on the major categories of the conceptual framework. Analysis of institutional design relies mainly on quantitative data to present a global analysis of institutions, graduates, and financing, followed by key stewardship functions such as accreditation, academic systems, faculty development, and collaboration for shared learning. We then examine instructional design, focusing on the purpose, content, method, and outcomes of the learning process. Challenges are categorised according to the four Cs explained in the conceptual framework: criteria for admission, competencies, channels, and career pathways. In the final subsection we cut across institutions and instruction by examining the challenges of local adaptability in an interdependent globalising world. In view of the huge diversity of health and educational systems, we address the question, how can instructional and institutional design achieve effectiveness in diverse contexts while at the same time harnessing the power of global pools and flows of knowledge and other resources?

Transdisciplinarity has a long history of academic discourse. Promoted as an adequate scientific response to pressing societal problems like climate change, it has recently received common currency in science policy rhetoric. Nevertheless, despite its increasing popularity, transdisciplinarity is still far from academically established and current funding practices do not effectively support it at universities and research institutions. One reason for this deficit is that a universally accepted definition for transdisciplinarity is still not available. Consequently, quality standards that equally guide researchers, program managers and donors are widely lacking. Therefore, a rhetorical mainstreaming of transdisciplinarity prevails which risks marginalizing those who take seriously the integrative efforts creative collaboration requires. The aim of this paper is thus to find common ground in the transdisciplinarity discourse. Based on an analysis of current scientific literature, we first identify main features of an emerging shared framework of transdisciplinarity. Second, building upon this framework, we present a conceptual model of transdisciplinarity that can be used by science and science policy to characterize different types of transdisciplinarity and their corresponding demands on integration. We also address the way in which ecological economics could benefit from adopting this model. To conclude, we propose a general definition of transdisciplinarity. We identified the main features of an evolving shared framework of transdisciplinarity.

Business education faces shortcomings that can be mitigated through the broad perspective of interdisciplinarity, fulfilling a call for a greater orientation toward Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Despite the relevance and urgency, current frameworks cannot embed context-related problems into their design, increasing the detachment of wicked problems and management education, and falling short of the goal-oriented prerogative. Interdisciplinarity is up to this task as an educational attitude and behaviour rather than a toolkit of cross-disciplinary classification. This paper aims to propose a framework for interdisciplinarity-based sustainability management for business education. We established the framework via a literature review analysis, and then we validated it through discussions with specialists from the United Nations Principles for Responsible Management Education (UN-PRME) to introduce a model with 49 evidence-driven, interdisciplinarity practices. We grouped results in three main dimensions of analysis connecting the 16 categories. We gave special attention to spaces of discomfort that ought to be fostered in business schools under a critical thinking perspective and the student’s role in the relevance of sustainability education. The work harbours practical implications for developing better practices for management education by blending an interdisciplinary approach to sustainability in the management education literature.

Research practice, funding agencies and global science organizations suggest that research aimed at addressing sustainability challenges is most effective when 'co-produced' by academics and non-academics. Co-production promises to address the complex nature of contemporary sustainability challenges better than more traditional scientific approaches. But definitions of knowledge co-production are diverse and often contradictory. We propose a set of four general principles that underlie high-quality knowledge co-production for sustainability research. Using these principles, we offer practical guidance on how to engage in meaningful co-productive practices, and how to evaluate their quality and success.

Multidisciplinary learning, interdisciplinary learning and transdisciplinary learning are often used with a similar meaning, but the misunderstanding of these terms may cause a failure of defining learner needs and developing high quality learning design. In this article, the three terms are reviewed in line with learner engagement and are conceptualised according to different types and levels of interactivity. An undergraduate course, named Creative Industries: Making Connections, was designed to deliver various learning modules to over 1200 students from 11 different disciplines in a blended learning mode. A visual communication learning module in the course, in particular, challenges students as well as academic staff to experience transdisciplinary learning. A survey was conducted to evaluate students' learning experience in the visual communication learning module. The results of the survey bring up meaningful implications for the realisation of transdisciplinary learning.

In the new Bachelor-level course Umweltproblemlösen (Tackling environmental problems), a part of ETH Zurich's Environmental Sciences Bachelor's programme, we teach students to zoom in on elements of practice (design thinking) and to zoom out on the whole system (systems thinking). Participants take stakeholders' interests and needs into account and prepare possible measures, thus developing transformation knowledge and anticipating their future role as transdisciplinary sustainability scientists.Umweltproblemlösen (Tackling environmental problems) is a Bachelor-level course that carries on a long tradition of transdisciplinary (td) case studies in the Environ mental Sciences curriculum at ETH Zurich. Td case studies introduce students to key features of transdisciplinarity. Two corres ponding learning goals of the case studies are 1. to not only analyse problems, but to also suggest solutions, and 2. to take the complexity of the tackled socio-ecological system into account. In the new course we address both learning goals by integrating systems and design thinking. We present this approach in detail to show how features of transdisciplinarity are transferred to learning contexts. We compare it to the approaches of other td case studies by asking how each interprets and addresses the two learning goals. The comparison shows that the case study approaches implicitly impart different ideas about how a td environmental scientist should support societal problem solving. A key difference to previous approach es is that the new course asks students to enter deeply into the world of practice and the stakeholders' divergent needs.

In the new Bachelor-level course Umweltproblemlösen (Tackling environmental problems), a part of ETH Zurich's Environmental Sciences Bachelor's programme, we teach students to zoom in on elements of practice (design thinking) and to zoom out on the whole system (systems thinking). Participants take stakeholders' interests and needs into account and prepare possible measures, thus developing transformation knowledge and anticipating their future role as transdisciplinary sustainability scientists.Umweltproblemlösen (Tackling environmental problems) is a Bachelor-level course that carries on a long tradition of transdisciplinary (td) case studies in the Environ mental Sciences curriculum at ETH Zurich. Td case studies introduce students to key features of transdisciplinarity. Two corres ponding learning goals of the case studies are 1. to not only analyse problems, but to also suggest solutions, and 2. to take the complexity of the tackled socio-ecological system into account. In the new course we address both learning goals by integrating systems and design thinking. We present this approach in detail to show how features of transdisciplinarity are transferred to learning contexts. We compare it to the approaches of other td case studies by asking how each interprets and addresses the two learning goals. The comparison shows that the case study approaches implicitly impart different ideas about how a td environmental scientist should support societal problem solving. A key difference to previous approach es is that the new course asks students to enter deeply into the world of practice and the stakeholders' divergent needs.

Abstract Transdisciplinarity is generally defined by the inclusion of non-academic stakeholders in the process of knowledge production. Transdisciplinarity is a promising notion, but its ability to efficiently address the world’s most pressing issues still requires improvement. Several typologies of transdisciplinarity have been proposed, generally with a theoretical versus practical dichotomy (Mode 1/Mode 2), and effort has focused on possible linkages between different types. However, in the last two decades, transdisciplinarity has significantly matured to the extent that the classical theoretical versus practical distinction appears clearly limited. In this paper, a reframing of the debate is proposed by considering transdisciplinarity as a new discipline and as a way of being . The conception of transdisciplinarity as a discipline can be related to the recent development of the broader discipline of “integration and implementation sciences” (i2S), to which “practical” Mode 2 transdisciplinarity is a major contributor. When transdisciplinarity is considered as a way of being , it is inseparable from personal life and extends far beyond the professional activities of a researcher. To illustrate this conception, the work and life of Edgar Morin can be used as an exemplary reference in conjunction with other streams of thought, such as integral theory. Transdisciplinarity as a discipline and transdisciplinarity as a way of being have complementarities in terms of researchers’ personal dispositions and space for expression in academia. The proposed distinction also raises the question of the status of consciousness in transdisciplinary projects, which may be a fruitful controversial topic for the transdisciplinary research community.

Implementing transdisciplinary learning strategies is paramount to contemporary learning goals of global sustainability. If educators are dedicated to creating complex critical thinkers that will create solutions to global problems, then the institution of education must reimagine the teaching and learning competencies that occur in the 21st century classroom. Expectations of learning processes and goals are altered when disciplines from various theoretical backgrounds merge. The theory of transdisciplinarity will be discussed, next, 21st century teaching and learning competencies will be defined and exemplified, finally, the connection between the theory of transdisciplinarity and the competencies that teachers and students must possess in order to create global sustainability in our highly-connected society will be explained.

There is a shifting landscape for knowledge generation in contemporary societies that suggests a bright future for transdisciplinary (TD) research. Interestingly, however, there is currently no clear consensus on what transdisciplinarity is or how its quality can be evaluated. This paper uses three avenues to advance and clarify our understanding of transdisciplinarity. Firstly, we survey the theoretical literature and identify key characteristics used by authors in the field to distinguish transdisciplinarity from related research approaches. These characteristics are problem focus, evolving methodology and collaboration. In our discussion of these we highlight variations in description that have significance for practice. Secondly, we explore three interesting quandaries that transdisciplinary researchers face (integration, reflection and paradox) discussing how these quandaries manifest in different dimensions and their potential as both challenge and opportunity for practice. Finally, we use our synthesised characteristics and challenges to shape two alternative frameworks for evaluating the quality of TD endeavours. Our first framework is based on strategic questioning and is potentially useful to individuals seeking to improve the quality of their work. Our second framework adapts an existing quality schema to the unique challenges of transdisciplinarity and may be more appealing to those seeking to compare TD research projects.